ARYAN CIVILISATION

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ARYANS AND VEDIC PERIOD IN INDIA
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Early Vedic Age

• The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend up to 600 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India.
• Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
• Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus.
• It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

• Origin of Indian Music – Samveda
• Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala
• Gayatri Mantra – Rigveda
• Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana
• Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala)
• Varna - Rigveda
• Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala
• Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada
• War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda
• Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada
• Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana
• Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana
• Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)
• Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana
• Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala
• Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana
• Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada
• Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda
• Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana
• Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

Aryans arrival in India

          The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
         Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

• It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians.
• On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards.
• Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

• The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans
• The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.
• The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate.
• The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta)
• The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus
• The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC)
• The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC).
• The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

Rig Vedic Polity

        The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe.

        He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf. Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and gana mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabha and samiti

       In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called bali.

        There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

• The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana.
• However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies.
• Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.
• The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha.
• Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.
• A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period
 

Tribal Organizatoin

        Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by term griha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women

         The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System

        Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.
 

Occupation

        Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People

Gold	Hiranya
Iron	Shyama
Copper	Ayas

Diet

         The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.

Strong Drinks

        The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements

          Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond  doubt.

Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda

Rig Vedic Name	New Name
Gomati	Gomal
Krumi	Kurram
Kubha	Kabul
Suvastu	Swat
Sindhu	Indus
Drishadvari	Ghaghar/Chitang
Satudri	Satluj
Vipas	Beas
Parushni Asikni	Ravi Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum

Rig Vedic Gods

          The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

• Believed in one Supreme God
• Did not believe in idol worship
• Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God.
• Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial.
• Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods.
• People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods

Indra	He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam
Agni	He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
Varuna	He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.
Soma	He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.
Yama	He was the guardian of the world of dead.
Surya	Similar to that of the Greek God Helios
Savithri	The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri
Pusan	Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.
Vishnu	A relatively minor God at that time.
Vayu	Wind God
Dyuas	Father of heaven
Aditi	Goddess of eternity
Maruts	Strom spirits
Gandharvas	Divine musicians
Ashvins	Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art
Ribhus	gnomes
Apsaras	Mistresses of gods
Rudra	An archer of god, whose anger brought disease.
Vishvadeva	Intermediate deities
Aranyani	Goddess of forest
Usha	Goddess of dawn
Prithvi	Goddess of earth

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

• In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas.
• The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period.
• The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in
  which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri.
• Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Regions and Kings

Eastern King	Samrat
Western King	Suvrat
Northern King	Virat
Southern King	Bhoja
King of middle country	Raja

Important Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita	Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani	Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati	Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha	Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas	Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani	Head of the village
Kulapati	Head of the family
Madhyamasi	Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha	Revenue collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana	Keeper of games and forests
Palagala	Messenger
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Akshavapa	Accountant
Sthapati	Chief Justice
Takshan	Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age

Kingdom	Location
Gandhar	Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab
Kekaya	On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom
Uttar Madra	Kashmir
Eastern Madra	Near Kangra
Southern Madra	Near Amritsar
Kushinagar	Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh
Panchal	Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh
Kashi	Modern Varanasi
Koshal	Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.
 

Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.
 

Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age

Brahma	Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals
Daiva	Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.
Arsa	A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati	Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Gandharva	Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.
Asura	Marriage by purchase.
Paisacha	It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa	Marriage by Capture

Religion in Later Vedic Period

• The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon.
• Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.
  In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry.
• Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras.
• Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River
• deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character.
• The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:-
1. Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda
2. Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda.
3. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda
The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali

Vedic Rituals

• Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.
• Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed.
• Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat.
• Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women.
• Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child.
• Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.
• Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.
• Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year.
• Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija (twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature : Four Vedas

1.     Samveda

• Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda
• "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.
• Has only 75 fundamental hymns
  1. Karnataka - Jaiminga
  2. Gujarat - Kanthun
  3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya
  Sung by Udgatri

2.     Rigveda

• Collection of hymns
• Oldest of all vedas
• Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028
• Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.
• Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra
• II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas
• I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.
• The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added
• later.
• Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.
• Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj,
• Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

3.     Yajurveda

• Book of sacrifical prayers
• Rituals of yajnas
• Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"
• Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"-
• the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.
• Has been compiled in "fourth path"
• Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text

4.     Atharvaveda

• Mantras for magic spells
• Populate ritualistic system & superstitions
• Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community
• Collection of 711/731/760 hymns
• Not included in 'Trai'
• Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"
• 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works
• Provides freedom from evils spirits.
• Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti

1. SRUTI LITERATURE

        The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

        The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
(a) The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
(b) Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed the Sutra period.
(c) These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
 

 Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
Vedas and their Brahmanas
1. Rigveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki
2. Samaveda Tandya and Jaiminiya
3. Yajurveda Tattiriya and Satpatha
4. Atharvaveda Gopatha
         The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
 

Aranyaka

• Literarily, it means 'Jungle'
• Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy
• Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles
• Give stress on meditation
• Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

         It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
 

Upanishada

• Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples
• Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy
• They are also called "Vedanta"
• Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"
• Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.
• Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.
• Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas
• Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani
• Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. SMRITI LITERATURE
        Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
 

 The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- 

(i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, 

(ii) Jyotisha or astronomy,
(iii) Siksha or phonetics, 

(iv) Chhanda or metre 

(v) Nirukta or etymology

(vi) Vyakarana (Grammer)
 

The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
 

Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
 

Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
 

The Eighteen Puranas
1 Brahma Purana

2 Vishnu Purana
3 Shiva Purana

4 Padma Purana
5 Shrimad Bhagwat Purana

6 Agni Purana
7 Narad Purana

8 Markandey Purana
9 Bhavishya Purana

10 Ling Purana
11 Varah Purana

12 Vaman Purana
13 Brahm Vaivertya Purana

14 Shanda Purana
15 Surya Purana

16 Matsya Purana
17 Garuda Purana

18 Brahmand Purana

Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
Upavedas Deals With

1. Dhanur veda (of Yajur Veda) Art of Warfare
2. Gandharva veda (of Sama Veda) Art and Music
3. Shilpa veda (ofAtharva Veda) Architecture
4. Ayurveda (of Rig Veda) Medicines

 

Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian
Buddhist scholars
 

Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
 

Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. EPICS
Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the
Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana

• It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous
• origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'.
• The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC.
• The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata

• The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books).
• This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person.
• The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava.
• The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita.

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism
By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows: